Effect of Hashish on Reproductive, Respiratory and Immune System

2009.05.11

Effects on the Reproductive System

  1. Effect on the Testis:

Treatment of animals with Δ9-THC or exposure to the cannabis smoke or smoking of hashish induced:

  • Depression of spermatogenesis.

  • Depression of sperm metabolism and motility.

  • Degeneration of the somniferous tubules, prostate gland, epididymis and the testis.

  • Increase in the percentage of abnormal sperms. Decrease in the enzymes involved in steroid genesis and spermatogenesis.

Furthermore, there was an increase in androgen binding protein inside the testis resulting in decrease in free testosterone level.

  1. Effects on the Ovary:

Treatment of various mammals with Δ9-THC or smoking of hashish resulted in inhibition of ovulation due to inhibition of gonadotrophin release. Furthermore, in those cases when ovulation occurred there was an increase in the number of the abnormal ova released. Indeed, chronic hashish smoking increased the interval between menstrual cycles to 3 months and increased the number of anovulatory menstrual cycles in women.

  1. Effects on the Uterus:

Exposure of the mammalian uterus to cannabis extracts decreased the frequency and force of the contractions. Furthermore, treatment of mammals with hashish extracts exerted antioestrogenic activity as reflected by inhibition of oestrogen-induced increase in glycogen and water content, increases in phospholipids, alkaline phosphatase, acid mucopolysaccharides and hyaluronidase. These effects did not seem to be due to a direct effect on uterine oestrogen-receptors but are more likely due to suppression of gonadotrophins and LH release. On the other hand, hashish extracts are shown to contain apigenin and 3, 4-dihydroxy-5-methoxybibenzyl that bind to oestrogen receptors in the uterine cytoplasm.

  1. Effects on the Foetus:

Administration of Δ9-THC or hashish extracts to pregnant mammals (rats, monkeys, hamsters, mice) during the embryogenesis period induced various teratogenic effects such as stunting, syndactyly, encephalocele, phocomelia, amelia, eventration of abdominal viscera, increased percentage of foetal resorption and cleft palate. Furthermore, administration of cannabis during pregnancy induced abortion and stillbirth together with acidosis, hypoxemia and hypercapnia in the foetus.

In humans, cannabis smoking during pregnancy disturbed labor, shortened the gestation period, decreased foetal weight and induced foetal malformations.

Most of these disturbances are not due to a direct effect on the foetus because with the exception of sheep the cannabinoids do not pass the placental barrier. It is more likely that cannabis-induced teratogenic and embryo toxic effects were due to disturbances in the maternal hormones and gonadal function or due to induced decrease in plasma level of vitamin E in the mothers.

Effect on the Respiratory System

Smoking of hashish produced inconsistent effects on the respiratory function. In some smokers stimulation of respiratory function and bronchodilation were observed whereas in others a depressant effect was observed. Furthermore, chronic cannabis smoking induced bronchial irritation cough, bronchitis and mucosal changes in the lungs.

On the other hand, exposure of animals to hashish smoke or administration of Δ9-THC depressed the respiration and increased tendency to pulmonary infection and pneumonitis. The depressant effect seemed to be mediated centrally by antagonizing the stimulating effect of CO2 on the medullar respiratory centre.

 

Effects on Immune System

In vivo studies using different mammals (mice and rabbits) or in vitro studies clearly demonstrated the ability of Δ9-THC or Δ8-THC or hashish smoke to suppress both humeral and cell-mediated immune responses. These substances decreased antibody formation as a result of inhibition of lymphocytes' function e.g. inhibition of B-lymphocyte mitosis or due to decrease in number of helper T-lymphocytes together with suppression of thymus gland activity.

This immunosuppressant activity may explain the decreased resistance of mammals to bacterial and viral infections. Thus cannabis smoking may suppress immunocompetence with the ultimate increase in susceptibility to cancer, bacterial and viral infections.

The biochemical mechanisms that underlie hashish-induced suppression of immunity may involve:

  1. Inhibition of lymphocytes' protein synthesis.

  2. Inhibition of lymphocytes' ATPases that is essential for active transport of essential nutrients into cells.

  3. Inhibition of acyltransferases that is associated with activation of cell mediated immunity.

Generally, it should be pointed that the immuno-suppressant effect of 9-THC or hashish will not be of any clinical value in humans with organ transplants due to the transient effects and high doses of Δ9-THC required.